Introduction
Sultan Abdülhamid II (1842–1918) is remembered as one of the most influential and controversial rulers in Ottoman history. Known as “The Last Great Sultan”, his reign marked a turning point for the Ottoman Empire, balancing modernization with tradition while facing internal strife, foreign pressure, and the looming collapse of an empire once called “the Sick Man of Europe.” His leadership, reforms, and policies left a lasting imprint on both the Ottoman state and the wider Islamic world.
Early Life and Rise to Power
Abdülhamid II was born on September 21, 1842, in Istanbul, into the royal family of Sultan Abdülmecid I. He was well-educated, fluent in multiple languages, and deeply influenced by Islamic traditions and Ottoman culture. After the brief reign of his brother, Murad V, who was deposed due to mental instability, Abdülhamid ascended to the throne in 1876, becoming the 34th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire.
The Ottoman Empire at the Brink
When Abdülhamid II came to power, the empire was in turmoil. Nationalist uprisings in the Balkans, financial crises, and mounting European interference threatened the empire’s very existence. To address these challenges, he initially introduced reforms and even granted the First Ottoman Constitution of 1876, which limited the absolute powers of the Sultan. However, after the outbreak of the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) and the empire’s humiliating defeat, Abdülhamid suspended the constitution, ruling as an autocrat for much of his reign.
The Era of Pan-Islamism
Abdülhamid II realized that nationalism was tearing apart the multi-ethnic empire. In response, he championed Pan-Islamism, presenting himself as the Caliph of all Muslims worldwide. Through this policy, he sought to unite Muslims across Ottoman lands and beyond under his leadership. He invested in Islamic education, built mosques, and promoted religious unity to strengthen loyalty to the empire. This strategy earned him respect among Muslims from North Africa to South Asia.
Reforms and Modernization
Despite his authoritarian rule, Abdülhamid II was a modernizer. He implemented reforms in various fields:
- Education: Expanded schools and universities, emphasizing both religious and modern sciences.
- Infrastructure: Initiated major projects such as the Hejaz Railway, which connected Damascus to Medina, easing pilgrimage to Mecca.
- Communication: Expanded telegraph and railway networks to improve administration and defense.
- Healthcare: Built hospitals and encouraged public health initiatives.
These reforms helped modernize the empire while reinforcing the Sultan’s control.
Foreign Policy and Struggles
Abdülhamid II was a master of diplomacy. He skillfully played European powers against each other to preserve the empire’s independence. However, he could not prevent the loss of territories in the Balkans and North Africa. The empire’s financial dependency on European banks also limited his freedom of action. Still, his reign delayed the empire’s disintegration for several decades.
Opposition and Downfall
Despite his achievements, Abdülhamid II faced growing opposition. His authoritarian style, heavy censorship, and secret police earned him criticism. The Young Turks, a reformist movement demanding the restoration of the constitution, gained momentum. In 1908, the Young Turk Revolution forced Abdülhamid to reinstate the constitution and parliament. A year later, in 1909, he was deposed and replaced by his brother Mehmed V. Abdülhamid spent the rest of his life in exile at the Beylerbeyi Palace in Istanbul.
Death and Legacy
Sultan Abdülhamid II died on February 10, 1918, just months before the Ottoman Empire collapsed at the end of World War I. He remains a deeply debated figure: some view him as a visionary leader who delayed the empire’s fall and defended Islam against Western encroachment, while others criticize him as a despot who resisted democratic reforms.
Today, his legacy continues to inspire discussions in Turkey and across the Muslim world. He is remembered as the last great sultan who tried to preserve the dignity and unity of a declining empire.
Conclusion
Abdülhamid II’s reign was a pivotal chapter in Ottoman history. As the last powerful ruler of the empire, he combined modernization with tradition, diplomacy with faith, and autocracy with reform. While he could not prevent the empire’s eventual collapse, his leadership shaped the late Ottoman period and cemented his place as one of the most remarkable figures in Islamic and world history.